Examining Literature on Lone Wolf Terrorism

 

Hamm, M. S., & Spaaij, R. (2017). The Age of Lone Wolf Terrorism. Columbia University Press.

This book culminated years of research into lone-wolf terrorism by Hamm and Spaaij that sets out to comprehensively tackle the complexity of defining and understanding lone wolf terrorists in the United States.  The authors examine 123 cases of lone-wolf terrorism in the United States between 1940 to 2016 and set out to produce an evidence-based approach to understanding this phenomenon. Hamm and Spaaij cover the origins of radicalization, attachment to terrorist groups, enabling factors, catalysts to acting, and preventing lone-wolves.  Hamm and Spaaij are very aware of the complex definition of a lone-wolf terrorist and are forthcoming about it in discussion on counterterrorism strategies.  The research consolidated and presented in this book is highly relevant and descriptive to the lone-wolf terrorism issue in the United States.

Simon, J. D. (2016). Lone wolf terrorism: understanding the growing threat. Prometheus Books.

This book by Jeffrey Simon is one of the few books on lone-wolf terrorism, acknowledging that the study of lone-wolf terrorism is significantly understudied compared to other areas of terrorism. Simon discusses three themes: lone-wolf terrorism is changing the dynamic international terrorism, the role of technology, specifically the internet, and the creative and innovative nature afforded to lone-wolves compared to group or intergroup dynamics. The book examines previous incidents of lone-wolf attacks to identify tactics, targets, motivations, and objectives.  A particular interest of research by Simon shows that lone wolves' ability towards creativity and innovation could lead to issues with utilizing weapons of mass destruction as part of their tactics. Simon's research is timely in the study of lone-wolf terrorism in discussing weapons of mass destruction, women's potential role in lone-wolf scenarios, and counterterrorism strategies.

Martin Gallagher. (2017). The 2016 'Lone Wolf' Tsunami - Is Rapoport's 'Religious Wave' Ending? Journal of Strategic Security, 10(2), 60–76. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.5038/1944-0472.10.2.1584

This article explores Rapoport's "waves of terrorism" theory and analyzes the potential fifth wave of terrorism in light of a spat of lone-wolf terrorist attacks in 2016.  Gallagher examines the parallel between current lone-wolf attacks and the anarchist wave of the 1880s.  Various events like notable terrorist groups losing physical territory, the ascendance of far-right political parties, technology, and strengthening counterterrorism strategies towards terrorist groups drive individuals to act more independently than in the recent past. The study notes the striking similarity of methodology and target selection between lone wolves and past anarchists. The research is timely in discussing the role of the internet, the role of religion and mental health as lone-wolf terrorism continues to be a significant issue. 

Gruenewald, J., Chermak, S., & Freilich, J. D. (2013). Far-Right Lone Wolf Homicides in the United States. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 36(12), 1005–1024. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1080/1057610X.2013.842123

This study on understanding far-right extremists under lone-wolf operations includes lone actors, lone wolves by loose association to a group, and wolf packs through the lens of homicide and if they were motived by ideology.  The authors build upon existing databases to determine whether far-right lone wolf attacks pose a growing threat to the United States security and increase attack frequency.  Their findings question existing conventional wisdom about far-right lone wolves as an increasing threat and attack frequency.  The authors admit that additional research on other groups like jihadists, far-left, eco-terrorists, and formal terrorist organizations could shed light on a more comparative approach to their study.  This research is instrumental in understanding how researchers apply different terminology to lone-wolf terrorism assessment for the United States and data on various motivations and tactics of far-right lone-wolf terrorists.

Post, J. M., McGinnis, C., & Moody, K. (2014). The Changing Face of Terrorism in the 21st Century: The Communications Revolution and the Virtual Community of Hatred. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 32(3), 306–334. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1002/bsl.2123

This article examines that the internet's role in creating and sustaining terrorism is part of the fifth wave of terrorism. The new generation seeks belonging and significance with online communities that generate self-radicalization. Terrorist organizations find that decentralized organizations can be met through the medium of the internet as counterterrorism strategies have put immense pressure on formal organizational structure.  The research notes US homegrown terrorists come from diverse educational, socioeconomic, ethnic, and family backgrounds that defy profiling.  The authors categorize US lone-wolf terrorists into four groups: glory seekers, hero worshippers, lonely romantics, and radical altruists.  This research is paramount in understanding the role of age as defined in generations embrace the internet for radicalization through various websites, forums, social media, and other internet applications. 

Hunter, L. Y., Griffith, C. E., & Warren, T. (2020). Internet connectivity and domestic terrorism in democracies. International Journal of Sociology, 50(3), 201–219. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1080/00207659.2020.1757297

This study analyzes the internet's role in an online radicalization process driven by oneself or interactions with others caused by the easy access of the internet found in democracies.  The authors examine 80 democracies to assess their hypothesis that greater internet connectivity drives domestic terrorism. The research notes that more access to the internet is not the primary cause of domestic terrorism; however, greater internet access increases potential radicalization, intensify existing tensions, more opportunity to recruit, and the avenue of self-radicalization.  This research could explain the drive of US domestic terrorism depending on wealth, rural versus urban, and overall state of health of democracy in creating or preventing lone-wolf terrorists.

Schuurman, B., Lindekilde, L., Malthaner, S., O'Connor, F., Gill, P., & Bouhana, N. (2019). End of the Lone Wolf: The Typology that Should Not Have Been. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 42(8), 771–778. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1080/1057610X.2017.1419554

        The authors challenge the entire existing typology of lone-wolf terrorists as attackers often have interpersonal, political, or operational ties to more extensive social networks.  The research investigates lone actor radicalization from a relational perspective and finds that Anders Breivik and Ted Kaczynski's cases are the exceptions rather than the rule.  The authors point out that lone wolf isolation is woefully overstated, and those lone actors have weak or affiliative external social ties that encourage or justify the use of violence. It is noted that the actual commission of the act of violence in the confines of the lone-wolf designation.  This research is vital to set an accurate parameter of lone-wolf terrorism, the influence of online/offline social interactions in terrorist motivation, and leakage behavior by many lone-wolves challenges the many preconceptions on the topic.

Gill, P., & Corner, E. (2016). Lone-Actor Terrorist Target Choice. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 34(5), 693–705. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1002/bsl.2268

This study scrutinizes lone-wolf terrorist target selection and attacks preparation from 111 incidents to study if behavior leans to targeting members of the general public versus high-value targets (HVTs). The author's research found little difference between those that plot against the general public versus HVTs; however, a significant finding was that information leakage of intent to harm greatly increased when targeting the public.  The research looks at network, planning, antecedent, information leakage, and stressor behaviors in target selection and attack planning.  The study confounded their hypothesis that targeting HVTs would require more human capital, technical expertise, and planning since lone-wolves displayed the same traits regardless of the target selected. This research is relevant to understanding lone-wolf targeting motivations and the importance of pre-attack information leakage is to reduce the threat.

Smith, L. (2021, January 26). Lone Wolves Connected Online: A History of Modern White Supremacy. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/26/us/louis-beam-white-supremacy-internet.html.

This article details the beginnings of utilizing the internet to drive radicalization and community of white supremacy by Louis Beam. Louis Beam was part of the Ku Klux Klan back in the 1980s that path founded using the internet to spread its message online. Beam's interactions against the federal government would be written into an essay called the "Leaderless Resistance," advocating small cell organization of five or less to resist that would become known as "lone wolves."  The article notes that domestic terrorism was purposely left as a blind spot for decades as the ideas from Beam gained traction as the internet became a ground to organize and share information, much of it in plain sight. Beam's leaderless resistance idea has gained acceptance in other terrorist ideologies, which shows the continued relevance of this particular idea that has the sustained lone-wolf terrorism strategy. Smith's article shows the threat of US lone-wolf terrorism was initiated from white supremacist ideology and showcases the sustaining power of the idea to organize and act based on lone-wolves.

 

Hoffman, B., Back to the Future: The Return of Violent Far-Right Terrorism in the Age of Lone Wolves. War on the Rocks. (2019, April 2). https://warontherocks.com/2019/04/back-to-the-future-the-return-of-violent-far-right-terrorism-in-the-age-of-lone-wolves/.

Hoffman writes on the evolution of lone-wolf terrorism adaptation from Louis Beam, al-Qaeda, ISIS, and the Christchurch attacker.  The article notes that the American far-right is responsible for creating two significant trends in global terrorism: lone wolves and utilizing computers for radicalization, recruitment, and inspiration. Beam operated internet bulletin boards for communicating, inspiring, and circulating literature as it was the cutting-edge technology at the time.  Decades later, the Islamic State takes advantage of a more matured internet infrastructure loaded with free social media networking platforms to drive inspiration of acts of lone-wolf terrorism.  Hoffman notes that the Christchurch gunman took full advantage of modern communications to hint his manifesto on Twitter, post it in 8chan, and live stream the shooting onto the internet for millions to see in real-time.  The importance of Hoffman's analysis is that the most prominent trends in terrorism strategy, particularly modern lone-wolf terrorism, did not come from abroad but were created from within our borders. 

Alfaro-Gonzalez, L., Barthelmes, R. J., Bartol, C., Boyden, M., Calderwood, T., Doyle, D., … Yee, K. (2015, July 27). Report: Lone Wolf Terrorism. Washington DC; Georgetown University. https://georgetownsecuritystudiesreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/NCITF-Final-Paper.pdf

This Georgetown University paper is a comprehensive overview of US lone-wolf terrorism that seeks to enhance existing open-source information on the subject.  The research is borrowed from Hamm and Spaaij, noting that profiling lone-wolves is largely ineffectively, showcase paths of radicalization, typology, and counterterrorism strategies.  The authors propose a new typology from all previous contemporary research divided into four groups: lone soldiers, lone vanguards, lone followers, and loners.  The paper shows the challenges of counterterrorism response that can result in blowback, explaining how the US government lacks a "whole of government" approach and offering recommendations to combat lone-wolf terrorism.  This research provides a relevant, easy-to-read analysis of what lone-wolf terrorism is, motivation, types, and how the government could counter it.

Gartenstein-Ross, D., & Barr, N. (2016, December 20). The Myth of Lone-Wolf Terrorism. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/western-europe/2016-07-26/myth-lone-wolf-terrorism.  

The authors dispel that lone-wolves truly act alone. They point out that quick labeling of individual attacks in Europe is dangerously overlooking the utilization of networks that most of these attacks use. The biggest problem in accurately identifying individual agency in recent terrorism incidents is that the nature of radicalization and operational planning has embraced digital communications and encryption. The authors point out that the old ways of thinking about radicalization and operational planning no longer apply in a digital world where individuals and networks can gather on social media and end-to-end encryption platforms to conduct all their activities without physically meeting.  This article does not have a particular focus on the United States; however, this article is important in acknowledging the influence of the internet blurs the line between the individual and terrorist networks as meeting barriers are lower online than trying to meet in person.